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Estimating Deforestation Due to Coca Cultivation in the Peruvian Amazon (2011-2021)
(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. Instituto de Estudios Internacionales (IDEI), 2024)
The largest negative environmental impact in the Peruvian Amazon (PA) is deforestation. To date, more than 8.4 million hectares have already been deforested, and they continue to grow. Deforestation for the 2011-2020 was 50% higher than that of the 2001-2010 period. Deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon is linked to several factors that include agricultural activities, logging, petroleum drilling, u rban growth and road building as the major drivers of the process. Illicit activities such as illegal gold mining with a strong impact in Madre de Dios and illegal logging and illicit coca cultivation throughout the Amazon region are also playing an increasingly major role in deforestation of the Peruvian Amazon. Illicit coca has spread through the PA through several stages since the 1970’s. There are no detailed records of coca areas before the 80’s. As of 2001 with the initiation of UNODC monitoring we have detailed information regarding location and magnitude of coca growing areas. Beginning in 2014, there is a more detailed identification of the GPS polygons of coca plots that allows for a better analysis of the behavior and impact of coca cultivation. Promoted by drug trafficking organizations, coca cultivation improvements have resulted in the adaptation of coca cultivars to continuously lower elevation levels. Over the past two decades, more that 70% of coca has been established at lower levels than 400 m.a.s.l. of the Amazon basin. Increases in productivity and coca yields per hectare, as well as the coca to cocaine conversion ratios have also been achieved by these organizations. Drug promoters plan and direct the location of coca planting and cocaine production. They study and select new production areas based on criteria such as agronomic conditions, road and river access, the absence of government security forces, and access to labor. In addition, they finance the migration of “cocaleros”, the participation of settlers (“colonos”) already in the area, the coopting of indigenous communities, etc. They also facilitate and finance the entire production process, purchase the coca leaves, and provide chemical precursors for cocaine base paste (CBP) and cocaine hydrochloride (CHC) production. Regarding deforestation, it is evident that slash and burn process related to coca cultivation in the u pper and lower Peruvian Selva (Selva Alta and Selva Baja), have taken place. While some efforts have been made to quantify the deforestation effect of coca, only qualitative approximations have been made to date. With the information available as of today, we have developed a methodology that allows for a more objective approach to quantify deforestation for the 2011-2021 period. Total Deforestation in the PA (TDPA) for the 2011-2021 period was 1,722,355 ha. In the area of interest for this evaluation, that is, where coca is grown, Total Deforestation in Coca Areas (TDCA) was 1,096,192 ha or 63% of the TDPA. Direct Deforestation from Coca (DDC) in TDCA was 83,232 ha (i.e., the planted coca area) corresponding to 7.6% of TDCA and 4.8% of TDPA. If we consider DDC plus the Deforestation Associated with Coca (DAC) or a buffer zone of 100 m surrounding the plantation, the DDC + DAC rises to 296,297 ha or 27% of TDCA and 17.2% of the TDPA. If we further increase the distance surrounding the plantation itself to 500 m the DDC + DAC goes u p to 438,250 ha or 40% of TDCA and 25.4% of TDPA. For our analysis, the buffer zone of 300 m has been considered, so it can be concluded with a certain level of confidence that the deforestation caused by coca leaf crops in Peru, between the years 2011-2021 was 385,122 hectares, which represents 35.1% of Total Deforestation in Coca Areas (TDCA), and 22.4% of Total Deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon (TDPA). The rise of illicit coca areas has resulted in increased invasion of Natural Protected Areas (NPA) and their buffer zones as well as those of indigenous communities, logging concessions and natural reserves. Coca cultivation and drug manufacturing have additional detrimental environmental impacts stemming from the intensive cultivation techniques depleting the soil; intensive u se of fertilizers and agrochemicals (pesticides, insecticides, fungicides); use of chemical precursors for the preparation of drugs that is carried out in the same growing areas; final disposal of agrochemical and chemical precursors and their containers as well as detritus from coca maceration. The adverse impacts affect the environment throughout: air, soil and bodies of water, biodiversity and people’s health. The growing impact of coca growing on deforestation in the PA requires an urgent response from the Government of Peru. All national and local public, private and civil society actors, and especially the affected indigenous communities need to be involved in the design and implementation of solutions to this problem. It is not only possible to develop early warning systems for new deforestation in order to take immediate remedial action, but it is also possible to enlist and promote active vigilance by indigenous communities, identify criminal organizations that promote illicit crops, eradicate these crops, and implement alternative development programs with sufficient resources to restore the affected areas. International cooperation can play an important role in remedying this situation.
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Una aproximación a la deforestación por cultivos de coca en el Perú (2011-2021)
(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. Instituto de Estudios Internacionales (IDEI), 2024)
El mayor impacto ambiental de la Amazonía peruana es la deforestación de sus bosques, habiéndose deforestado más de 8.4 millones de hectáreas. En las últimas dos décadas la deforestación ha seguido creciendo, la deforestación en el período 2011-2020 creció más de 50% comparado con el período 2001-2010. Diversos factores explican la deforestación amazónica, las actividades agropecuarias, la explotación forestal, la explotación petrolera, el crecimiento urbano y la construcción de carreteras son los principales dinamizadores de la deforestación. Pero también las economías ilícitas juegan un rol cada vez más importante en la deforestación. La minería ilegal de oro con fuerte impacto en Madre de Dios, la tala ilegal y los cultivos ilícitos de coca con impactos en toda la Amazonía. Los cultivos ilícitos de coca se han extendido por toda la Amazonía desde la década de los 70’s, pasando por varias etapas. No hay un registro de las áreas de coca antes de los 80’s. A partir del año 2001 se cuenta con información más detallada de la localización y magnitud de los cultivos de coca, con los Informes de Monitoreo de UNODC y DEVIDA. A partir de 2014 se cuenta con la identificación mucho más detallada de los polígonos de las parcelas de coca que permiten un mejor análisis del comportamiento e impacto de los cultivos de coca. La dinámica cocalera, impulsada por las organizaciones criminales del narcotráfico, ha permitido la adaptación de los cultivos de coca a pisos ecológicos cada vez más bajo, en las última dos décadas más del 70% de los cultivos de coca se han instalado en pisos ecológico menores de 400 m.s.n.m. Los incrementos en productividad y rendimiento de coca por hectárea, así como la mejora en los indicadores de conversión de coca por cocaína, también son mejoras tecnológicas logradas por el narcotráfico. El narco-promotor planifica y lidera el avance de los cultivos de coca y la producción de cocaína. Estudia y selecciona los nuevos ámbitos de producción cocalera en base a criterios de condiciones agronómicas, accesos viales y fluviales, falta de presencia del Estado y de las fuerzas de seguridad y acceso a mano de obra. Además, financia la migración de cocaleros, el involucramiento de colonos, la cooptación de comunidades nativas. Facilita y financia todo el proceso productivo del cultivo de la coca, compra de la hoja de coca, desvío de insumos químicos y la elaboración de la droga. Con relación a la deforestación, es evidente que los cultivos de coca mayoritariamente se han instalado en bosques de la Selva Alta y Baja. Se han hecho algunos esfuerzos por cuantificar esta deforestación, pero se han realizado aproximaciones cualitativas al respecto. Sin embargo, con el acceso a la información que hoy se tiene, se ha elaborado una metodología que permite una cuantificación más objetiva en el período de 2011-2021. La Deforestación Total en la Amazonía de Perú (DTAP), en el período de estudio 2011-2021, fue de 1’722,355 ha. Para la zona o ámbito geográfico de estudio, es decir dónde hay presencia de cultivos de coca, la Deforestación Total en los Ámbitos Cocaleros (DTAC) por todo concepto fue de 1’096,192 ha lo que representa el 63% de la Deforestación Total en la Amazonía de Perú. En el ámbito geográfico de estudio la Deforestación Directa por Coca (DDC) fue de 83,232 ha, lo que corresponde al 7.6% de la Deforestación Total en los Ámbitos Cocaleros o el 4.8% de la Deforestación Total en la Amazonía. La Deforestación Directa por Coca + Buffer (Deforestación Asociada por Coca – DAC), se presenta un rango desde los 100 m de distancia a los cultivos de coca, que calcula una deforestación acumulada de 296,297 ha que corresponde al 27% de la Deforestación Total en los Ámbitos Cocaleros o el 17.2% de la Deforestación Total en la Amazonía de Perú. Si se toma el rango mayor de 500 m de distancia, se calcula una deforestación acumulada de 438,250 ha que corresponde al 40% de la Deforestación Total en los Ámbitos Cocaleros o el 25.4% de la Deforestación Total en la Amazonía de Perú. Para nuestro análisis por ámbitos cocaleros se ha utilizado un radio medio de 300 m, por lo que se puede concluir con cierto nivel de confianza que la deforestación causada por los cultivos de hoja de coca en el Perú, entre los años 2011-2021 fue de 385,122 hectáreas, lo que representa el 35.1% de la Deforestación Total en Ámbitos Cocaleros, y el 22.4% de la Deforestación Total en la Amazonía de Perú. El crecimiento de cultivos ilícitos de coca además ha invadido, cada vez más, las Áreas Naturales Protegidas (ANP) y sus Zonas de Amortiguamiento (ZA), además de territorios de comunidades nativas, concesiones y reservas. Los cultivos de coca y la elaboración de drogas tienen además otros impactos ambientales debido a las técnicas de cultivo intensivo; el uso de agroquímicos como insecticidas, plaguicidas, herbicidas y fertilizantes; el uso de precursores químicos para la elaboración de drogas que se realizan en las mismas áreas de cultivos de coca; la disposición final de los desechos de los agroquímicos y precursores químicos y sus envases, así como de los detritus. Los impactos se dan en todo el ambiente, en el aire, suelos y corrientes de agua, afectando la biodiversidad y la salud de las poblaciones. El creciente impacto de los cultivos de coca en la deforestación y la contaminación en la Amazonía requiere una inmediata respuesta del Estado. Se debe involucrar a todos los actores locales públicos, privados y de la sociedad civil, y especialmente a las comunidades nativas afectadas. No solo es factible tener alertas tempranas de las nuevas zonas deforestadas para una actuación inmediata, también promover la vigilancia activa de las comunidades nativas, la identificación de las organizaciones criminales que promueven estos cultivos ilícitos, la erradicación de los cultivos ilícitos y la ejecución de los programas de desarrollo alternativo con recursos suficientes para restaurar las zonas afectadas. La cooperación internacional también puede ser un actor importante para remediar esta situación.
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Liderazgo indígena y mass media. El caso de Alberto Pizango en la política peruana
(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2022-08-29)
Over the last fifty years, indigenous leadership has undergone a series of important transformations. This trajectory has been dominated by a process of merging and reworking different models of leadership fromlocal, national and global contexts. In all of this, the creative use of visual tools and mass media has played a fundamental role. Within the Peruvian political scenario, the figure of Alberto Pizango Chota, Shawi leader ofthe Aidesep organisation, has set an important precedent in this regard. His case is an exemplary field of study on the extraordinary possibilities of exhibition, the use of images, the fabrication of aesthetics and the elaboration of new expressive codes. These are all elements that contemporary Amazonian leadership can propose and disseminate through digital technologies and relations with the mass media.
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Women of influence: Interdisciplinary participatory approaches to understanding female leadership in the Peruvian Amazon
(New Area Studies, 2024-08-03)
The Mujeres que influyen (Women of Influence) project is a collaboration between researchers at University of East Anglia and PUCP, and young women from the Junín area of Peru who are members of the National Council of Indigenous Women of Peru. It takes its starting point from an acknowledgement that although women play a fundamental role in the preservation of biodiversity and ancestral knowledge, these contributions often go unrecognized and underdeveloped (Ketty Marcelo, 2018), to the detriment of the very culture and environment that should be preserved. Our women-led participatory project, uses film (production, screening, analysis) to highlight the potential and importance for active and organised participation by these young women in their communities in order to protect and nurture their natural resources. Working alongside Asháninka and Yanesha young women, we seek to demonstrate the value of young female involvement in community decision-making, addressing the cultural and societal inequalities that may disrupt their path to leadership and influence. In this paper, we focus on the methods developed in the project, particularly the value of participatory video production as a form of activism, with the outputs serving as creative manifestos in themselves. The co-designed activities have led us to reframe fieldwork as auto-ethnographic digital collaborations that have sought to disrupt power hierarchies and facilitate the co-production of new knowledge. We reflect on how our Indigenous partners have helped us rethink issues of sustainability, resilience and alternative strategies to respond to gender dynamics, political ecologies and environmental challenges.
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The State, Indigenous communities, and illicit economic activities in the Peruvian Amazon
(Taylor and Francis, 2024-01-01)
Since its foundation, the Peruvian State has configured its Amazonian territory as a frontier zone characterized by the predominance of violence and the absence of the rule of law. Nowadays, 200 years later, this region is still defined by violence and illicit economic activities and by the incapacity of the State to comply with its own legal norms. In this chapter, after a brief historical review of this complex relationship, I discuss the main illicit activities in the region: coca production and drug trafficking, illegal logging and gold mining, and human trafficking, as well as their impacts on the indigenous communities. Finally, I will discuss the capability of the Peruvian State to exercise a regime of law and order in this region.
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Planning for autonomy and conservation: ‘Life Plans’ and communal reserves in the Amazonian borders of Peru
(Routledge, 2024-01-01)
State-promoted biodiversity conservation can either align with or diverge from Indigenous Peoples’ priorities, knowledge, and self-determined development paths. Drawing on fieldwork at the Amazon borders of Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, this paper examines Indigenous organizations’ efforts to uphold territorial rights and pursue planning with Indigenous values in landscapes earmarked for conservation. The key question centers on how ‘border configurations’ affect grassroots planning and conservation focusing on the experience of Peruvian Secoya (Siékopai) People. Using expert interviews and ethnographic methods, the paper finds that conservation agencies risk losing credibility without genuine efforts toward social equity and well-being, constrained by mandates that often neglect local needs. The success of Life Plans depends on solidarity networks that balance conservation with viable economic alternatives, equitable power dynamics, and access to services. Ultimately, the paper shows that Life Plans empower Indigenous organizations, offering meaningful options for political self-representation within Amazonian conservation.
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Pedagogical accompaniment in Peruvian Amazon: Conceptions, process and problems
(Centro Interamericano de Investigaciones Psicologicas y Ciencias Afines, 2024-01-01)
In Peru, the census evaluations (ECE) of the Ministry of Education (MINEDU) show that few students of Intercultural Bilingual Education (EIB) in the Ucayali region reached the expected level in reading comprehension and math. In response to this critical situation, MINEDU implemented pedagogical accompaniment as a national strategy to improve school learning. However, after its implementation, there was no evidence of improvements in the learning achievements of children. In this context, a qualitative descriptive study was proposed, whose purpose was to understand the conceptions, process, and problems of the mentors of the Shipibo-Konibo and Asháninka peoples in their pedagogical accompaniment work. This study was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, 10 EIB pedagogical mentors from the Shipibo-Konibo and Asháninka peoples in the province of Coronel Portillo participated in a group interview. In the second phase, three mentors from two Shipibo-Konibo communities participated. During this phase, the mentors were observed during their work in the classroom and accompaniment sessions and were then interviewed. The main results of the study showed that the mentors concluded that the accompaniment consists of assisting the teachers in their pedagogical work to facilitate better learning for the children. However, while the actions they took contributed to the pedagogical content necessary for teachers to fulfill their role, they were potentially undermining the trust relationships necessary for an optimal accompaniment process. Furthermore, it was found that the mentors followed the accompaniment protocol suggested by the MINEDU. The most significant issue identified was the perceived difficulty of accessing the communities where the teachers work, as many are located several days’ travel from the city of Pucallpa, where most of the mentors reside. This means that the mentors have to travel long distances to fulfill their accompaniment duties, with some having to travel by boat for up to three days. Additionally, the mentors reported issues with managing the accompaniment, such as not being paid on time, not receiving necessary materials, or not following work schedules. Many also reported that even when materials reach the communities, the teachers are not trained to use them, which leads to them not being utilized. Although the mentor was supposed to focus on supporting the teacher’s lesson planning, this left little time to focus on the themes that concerned the teacher or other formative aspects that were needed. It was also observed that the mentors focused on the difficulties teachers had in teaching, while ignoring the potentialities that these teachers could have for pedagogical practice. This article presents these and other findings about pedagogical accompaniment in this area and suggests the inclusion of a psycho-pedagogical perspective in the process.
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Seeking Socio-Environmental Justice: Indigenous Perceptions of Oil Extraction and Environmental Remediation in the Northern Peruvian Amazon En demanda de justicia socioambiental: percepciones indígenas sobre la actividad petrolera y la remediación ambiental en la Amazonía norperuana
(Flacso Mexico, 2026-01-01)
This article analyzes the effects of hydrocarbon exploitation in socio-ecological landscapes of the northern Peruvian Amazon, as well as the socio-environmental conflicts between indigenous federations, corporations, and the State institutions in the former Block1AB (Loreto, Peru). Using a mixed-methods approach that integrates quantitative and qualitative data, the study examines the perceptions of Quechua, Achuar, and Kichwa indigenous communities regarding their experiences, dilemmas, and environmental afflictions in relation to oil pollution, environmental degradation, indigenous life perspectives, and the restoration of their territories. The findings suggest that the expressions of endogenous assessments by the affected native communities and their expectations for systemic environmental remediation constitute key benchmarks within the framework of their current demands for socio-environmental justice, transcending the traditional technical vision of territorial restoration.
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From rules to practices: Assembling natural resource governance in the Peruvian Amazon
(Routledge, 2024-01-01)
An assemblage framework improves our understanding of institutional diversity in natural resource governance. Drawing on the ‘practices of assemblage’ perspective of Tania M. Liand actor network theory studies, this chapter conceptualizes assemblage ...
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