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Item type:Publication, Peru(Elsevier, 2020-01-01)The large biodiversity of Peru presents many opportunities and challenges regarding proper characterization of plant and animal toxins. In addition, there are naturally occurring sources of heavy metals that raise some concerns. Man-made activities such as illegal mining activities, lead in paint and combustibles commercialized until 2004, agricultural overuse of fertilizers and pesticides, urban particulate pollution from aging cars, and improperly disposed residues from urban waste, fisheries, and the metal-mechanic industry represent hotspots of concern regarding occupational and population-wide exposures. Most regulation is coordinated by the Ministry of Environment or the Ministry of Health. One undergraduate and one graduate degree in Toxicology is offered by Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.1 - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, Water-related challenges in nexus governance for sustainable development: Insights from the city of Arequipa, Peru(Elsevier, 2020-12-10)Peru has one of the fastest-growing economies in Latin America, but there are concerns regarding how long this can be sustained. Negative environmental impacts are increasing due to the pressures of a growing urban population and competition for natural resources. This study explores stakeholder perceptions linked to nexus governance in the context of integrated management of natural resources, particularly water, and the environmental, socio-economic and governance challenges constraining the achievement of UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Our analysis focused on the urban and rural areas associated with the city of Arequipa, an economically dynamic region subject to extreme levels of water stress. Face-to-face interviews with key informants were conducted to identify mechanisms that have enhanced successful multi-sectoral collaboration, and to assess challenges in promoting sustainable economic development. A workshop prioritised the identified challenges and an online survey was then used to assess stakeholder interest in and influence over nexus governance of water with other natural resources. Stakeholder mapping revealed a complex network of actors involved in nexus governance, where successful collaboration could be promoted through formal and informal mechanisms, including exemplar policies and initiatives across sectors and actors. Shared visions between stakeholders were identified as well as contradictory priorities relating to the sustainable management of natural resources. A key finding that emerged was the need to promote adaptation in water and land management (SDG 6) due to perceived impacts of extreme climate events (SDG 13), urban population growth (SDG 11), and increased sectoral water demands. This situation in combination with poor governance and lack of planning has exposed the vulnerability of Arequipa water supply system to future shocks. Urgent action will be needed to raise stakeholder awareness, strengthen governance and enforcement, and agree on a collective vision for integrated land and water planning if the SDGs are to be achieved. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, One industry, different conflicts: a typology of mining mobilization(Elsevier Ltd, 2022-03-01)Mining conflicts are comprised of diverse socio-territorial mobilizations that originate in different parts of countries where mineral deposits are exploited, and became politicized to target international companies and national state policies. To analyze the diversity of mining conflicts, this paper develops a multidimensional matrix typology based on the intersection of two core dimensions: the framing of claims and the degree of disruption of repertoires of contention. The result is four types of conflicts: resistance, negotiation, subordination, and dependency. The paper finds empirical evidence for the conceptual typology through the analysis of a database of 49 case studies of mining conflicts in Latin America, providing rich, contextual, and historical information that allows not only for more accurate classifications of conflicts, but also for better understanding of how different combinations of claims and repertoires can advocate for different policy outcomes and relations with the state and mining companies. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, Mercury pollution in Peru: geographic distribution, health hazards, and sustainable removal technologies(Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH, 2022-08-01)Peru is one of the great gold producers worldwide. However, a significant portion of the gold produced in Peru derives from artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in the Andes and Amazon. In ASGM, gold amalgamation with mercury (Hg) is a critical procedure to refine gold through the formation of Au-Hg alloys. Due to the rudimentary and improvised techniques conducted by small-scale and informal miners, Hg contamination has become of great concern and is strictly associated with ASGM. Multiple studies have evidenced notably high concentrations of Hg in consumable fish species, rivers, sediments, and air in locations where ASGM is one of the main sources of income to local communities and is carried out aggressively. In the present review, we have conducted a systematic search for national and international literature reporting the concentration and distribution of Hg pollution across environmental compartments, biota, and human samples in Peru. The results and data retrieved from the articles were quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed, and the distribution of Hg across environmental compartments was visualized through a geographic information system. Additionally, we reviewed the use of adsorption techniques as alternatives to treat Hg0 vapor from the gold shop and smelter flues, one of the main sources of hazardous levels of Hg exposure. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, The commitment to infrastructure: Public investment and the reproduction of water scarcity in contexts of large mining in Peru and Colombia(Universidad Catolica del Norte, 2022-01-01)Public and private policies typically consider the construction of infrastructure the most appropriate response to the problems of water scarcity and water disputes. However, infrastructure in itself not always is the solution. In this context we have the following questions: What are the logics behind the construction and implementation of water infrastructure? Why water infrastructures are not alone a solution to water stress and scarcity? How does infrastructure construction reduce or deepen inequalities in access to water? This article answers these questions by arguing that water infrastructures respond to technical-political projects of territorial control and mining expansion located in areas of mining influence, rather than aiming to solve water access and supply problems. In doing so, they ended up deepening inequalities in local water access. This article compares infrastructures constructed in the context of large-scale mining projects in Espinar, Peru and La Guajira, Colombia. The information presented was collected following qualitative methods (semi-structured interviews and situated ethnographies). Likewise, the article systematizes secondary quantitative and qualitative data provided by government institutions related to water and mining, and the Environmental Impact Studies and web publications regarding the Tintaya-Antapaccay and Cerrejón mining projects. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, Entangled territorial controversies: Contesting mining, territorial ordering, and authority in Quetzaltenango, Guatemala(Elsevier Ltd, 2024-10-01)This article examines territorial disputes in the Palajunoj Valley of Quetzaltenango, Guatemala's second largest city located in the western highlands. Drawing on our field research, we explore how dominant territory-making practices and indigenous-led resistance play out over an emerging municipal territorial ordering plan that gets interwoven with disputes over large-scale mining, waste disposal, and municipal authority amid wider urban–rural marginalization and tensions. We innovatively combine the notions of territory, territorial ordering governmentality, and the echelons (or levels) of rights framework to unpack the different layers on which dominant actor alliances’ territorialization strategies and the responses of territorial defense movements emerge. Departing from an understanding that the disputes in the valley are not only about resources, but also entwine struggles over rules, authority, and discourses, we make a twofold argument. First, we argue that the ruling-group's existing territory-making practices and new territorial ordering techniques coincide across the echelons, building on and reinforcing stark power imbalances. Second, we argue that indigenous-led, territory-based resistance movements engage in diverse strategies of contestation to articulate shared concerns around externally-imposed territorial interventions across echelons, but are challenged by micropolitical fragmentation, threats and instances of violence, and fragile multi-scalar support networks. Our analysis suggests that future territorial defense depends on the strengthening of multi-scalar and multi-actor alliances that – while acknowledging difference and tensions within and among resisting actors − devise their strategies along the four interconnected echelons and articulate their concerns in converging yet plural resistance strategies. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, Maps’ agency and mountains’ multiplicity: Conflicts triggered by state maps involving pilgrims and desired mining futures in the Andes(John Wiley and Sons Inc, 2024-09-01)This article analyzes how the agency of state maps triggered conflicts between rural communities, pilgrims, and state institutions, in which some mountains emerged as multiple entities within and beyond the nature-culture divide. The Quyllurit'i shrine is the focus of an important pilgrimage in the Andes. The Peruvian state established the shrine´s Protected Area in 2010 but had been granting mining concessions around it. Confronted with a state map of the Protected Area surrounded by mining concessions, the pilgrims' organizations called for their nullification and staged protests in Cuzco city in 2016. Meanwhile, the community within which the shrine is located experienced the establishment of the Protected Area as a process of land expropriation. Its members were holders of the mining concessions and aimed to conduct mining on their lands. Mining concessions, the Protected Area, and land titles were the state maps mediating these conflicts. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, Ecosystems, watersheds and water rights in Cajamarca, Peru(Routledge, 2024-01-01)In contested environments, the importance of water transcends its status as a mere resource to comprise the ecosystem and the watershed. Farmers and ronderos in Santa Cruz, Cajamarca, who face the brunt of deleterious environmental impacts from mining in their territories emphasize the relevance of ecosystems and watersheds for water provision. The interdependency of water and ecosystems is demonstrated through their local water rights. As water sources are threatened, the scope of local water rights is reconceptualized to guarantee water as both resource and nature. In analysing the transformation of water rights in the midst of socioenvironmental conflicts, the article shows how the residents of Santa Cruz take an unconventional approach assembling local understandings of water and global environmental discourses to protect the entirety of the environment where water flows. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, (Between plunder and shock: Prior consultation in Peru during the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on Indigenous Peoples)(Onati International Institute for the Sociology of Law, 2024-10-01)This document highlights that the Peruvian State took advantage of the pandemic as an opportunity to infringe upon the rights of indigenous peoples by accelerating the prior consultation processes in the mining sector, thus violating rights recognized in its own legislation and the jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court. The analysis of consultation processes (2020–2022) evidenced (I) lack of accessibility, as the State used legal Spanish in all process documents, despite the fact that in 77.7% of the communities, over 80% of the population had an indigenous language as their mother tongue; (II) lack of good faith, as 88% of the cases had stages shortened and the intercultural dialogue stage excluded; and (III) the failure to aim at reaching an agreement, using less time and recording only a matrix of agreements from one community. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, Assesment of the protection mechanisms for indigenous environmental defenders in mining contexts, in Peru(Frontiers Media, 2026-01-01)is because national mining regulations do not provide for prior consultation regarding mining concessions, leading to significant legal disputes. 11 Faced with the intrusion of miners, Indigenous peoples resist, mobilize, and defend themselves collectively, using their jurisdiction to prohibit entry and/or expel miners from their territories. 12 In the case of "illegal mining", the confrontation between Indigenous peoples and miners is direct, and the latter often respond with threats, kidnappings, and the murder of Indigenous people. 13 In the case of "formal mining", due to its appearance of legality, corporations obtain police 14 and military support for repression, leaving Indigenous people dead, wounded, stigmatized, and criminalized, 15 as in the Conga case, 16 where their leaders face more than 500 criminal proceedings.Peru is subject to an international legal framework for the protection of human rights defenders developed by the universal system and the Inter-American Human Rights System since 1998. 17 It has also established institutional mechanisms and policies on human rights defenders, starting with the inclusion of the issue in the third National Human Rights Plan 2018-2021. 18 Additionally, in 2018, Peru signed the Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean, but Congress rejected its ratification.In 2021, the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights (MINJUSDH) created the "Intersectoral Mechanism for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders" through Supreme Decree 004-2021-JUS, modified by Supreme Decree 002-2022-JUS (hereinafter, "the Mechanism"). The Mechanism defines who human rights defenders are, identifies risk situations and their causes. It also establishes the procedures and possible prevention and protection measures to be adopted. 19 The Mechanism brings together eleven state entities, 20 which have developed specific protocols, 21 and includes a portal for registering risk situations (hereinafter, "the Portal"). 22Do protection mechanisms reflect actual challenges faced by defenders? Regarding "risk factors", the Portal offers registration options linked to "illegal economies", such as illegal mining, illegal logging, drug trafficking, etc., but offers no option to register risks linked to "formal mining", for which the Mechanism is not relevant.Regarding "types of risk," the Portal allows the registration of "arbitrary detentions," but not cases involving "criminalization", that is, when human rights defenders face criminal proceedings, which represents one of the most widespread forms of persecution against them. The Mechanism thus indirectly ignores the recommendations of the IACHR to halt the criminalization of human rights defenders. 23 Regarding the measures to be adopted by the Mechanism, most are individual in nature and do not appear relevant to collective cases. For example, they do not consider strengthening Indigenous autonomy to determine their own development path and decide who may or may not enter their territory. 24 Nor do they foresee measures to strengthen Indigenous jurisdictions against the intrusion by third parties, whether through Indigenous justice systems, peasant patrols, or Indigenous guards. 25 The Mechanism, 22 MINJUSDH (n.d.). Portal for human rights defenders at risk. 23 "The IACHR has understood criminalization as the misuse of criminal law through the manipulation of the State's punitive power by state or non-state actors with the aim of hindering its defense work and thus preventing the legitimate exercise of its right to defend human rights." (CIDH, 2025, para. 150). 24 The Constitutional Court (2012), in the case of the Native Community of Tres Islas (Exp. 1126-2011-HC/TC) established the obligation to respect communal autonomy, based on its right to decide its development priorities in its territory and not allow the unauthorized intrusion of third parties, based on articles 7 and 18 of ILO Convention 169. See an analysis in Yrigoyen, 2013. 25 In the case of the "Tres Islas" Native Community, the Supreme Court determined that the Community's decision to prevent the entry of third parties was not the crime of "obstruction of communications" rather the "exercise of its jurisdictional functions" recognized in Article 149 of the Constitution, and therefore acquitted the community authorities. Supreme Court of Peru (2010) Case No. 952-2010-41-incident: Exception of inadmissibility of the action. Case of the Tres Islas Native Community. See case analysis in: Yrigoyen, 2025, p. 305. also, does not offer measures to address demands related to the annulment of concessions granted without consultation, which could provide a fundamental solution. 26According to MINJUSDH (n.d.), between June 2019 and July 2025, 517 "risk situations" were identified and recorded involving 742 human rights defenders and 61 family members, most of them in the Amazon region. Eighty-five percent of the cases relate to the "defense of the environment and the rights of Indigenous peoples". Seventy percent are related to risks stemming from "illegal activities," such as illegal logging (23%), drug trafficking (16%), illegal mining, etc. 27 The official Portal notably reports 91 cases of illegal mining in Indigenous communities, representing 18% of the registered cases. 28 While there are no official statistics about the effectiveness of protection measures, indigenous organisations question the Mechanism's limited effectiveness, 29 citing "its limited coverage, lack of budget, and untimely response to imminent threats", including cases of people who were killed despite having protection measures in place. 30Current protection mechanisms are neither relevant nor effective in cases of Indigenous leaders being criminalized for defending the environment against "formal mining" megaprojects, nor have they proven effective in protecting Indigenous defenders against "illegal mining". Protection mechanisms need to address both "formal" and "illegal mining", which will need far more attention to the risks generated by criminalization.Protection mechanisms must be rethought with the effective participation of Indigenous peoples.Among the measures to be taken, it is necessary to strengthen and support Indigenous jurisdictions to prevent the intrusion of unauthorized miners or, if necessary, expel them from their territories. Furthermore, the State, at the request of Indigenous peoples and in coordination with them, must implement effective interdiction measures to expel miners 26 The Tres Islas Community, which was being harassed by the intrusion of miners into its territory, sued for the annulment of all mining concessions, the allocation of agricultural land, and water rights granted to third parties within its communal territory without prior consultation. The Judiciary upheld its claim, declaring all administrative acts carried out without consultation null and void and ordering full redress. See: Yrigoyen, 2019. 27 Regarding the regions with the most risk situations entered into the Registry, they are: "Ucayali (19%), Lima (15%), Loreto (11%), San Martín (11%), Madre de Dios (9%), Piura (7%), Huánuco (5%), Amazonas (5%) and Junín (4%)". MINJUSDH (n.d.). "Registry System on Risk Situations of Human Rights Defenders". 28 Of the mining-related cases, a third are located in Madre de Dios (31), followed by Loreto (19), Amazonas (17), Huánuco (12), and Cusco (4), among others. MINJUSDH (as of December 10, 2024). Consult statistical information on risk situations against human rights defenders. Filter applied: Environment, Indigenous Peoples, Illegal Mining (no other mining category). 29 As one indigenous organization points out that, "of the 180 cases of risk in Ucayali, the Ministry of the Interior only provided 38 resolutions of personal guarantees for human rights defenders between 2020 and 2024," that is, it only attended to one out of every five people who actually required the guarantees. García, F. (2025, May 12). 30 Indigenous organizations also report the deaths of 35 indigenous defenders between 2013 and 2024, who were threatened in cases of illegal logging, land trafficking and drug trafficking, and question the effectiveness of the Intersectoral Mechanism (ODDA, 2025, 21 p.). from Indigenous territories, since any entry without Indigenous consent is illegal per se, without the need to wait for court rulings.Among the substantive measures, it is necessary to promote policies that guarantee the State does not grant mining concessions or establish mining registries (REINFO) without adequate environmental safeguards and without the prior consultation and consent of Indigenous Peoples. And, if the State has already granted concessions or registrations without prior consultation, measures should be included to promote the declaration of nullity of such concessions or registrations.