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Item type:Publication, Turning Over a New Leaf: Regional Applicability of Innovative Drug Crop Control Policy in The Andes.(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. Departamento de Ciencias Sociales, 2020-06)En este artículo se examinan las estrategias de control de la coca y de desarrollo en Bolivia y el Perú mediante la intersección del desarrollo participativo, el control social y la relación entre los cultivadores y el Estado. Bolivia ha surgido como líder mundial en la formulación de un modelo participativo y no violento para hacer frente al comercio de la cocaína. Entre 2006 y 2019, el Gobierno limitó la producción de coca mediante el control a nivel comunitario. Nuestro estudio concluye que el modelo boliviano no sólo ha demostrado ser más eficaz para reducir la superficie de coca que las medidas represivas, sino que también ha ampliado efectivamente los derechos sociales y civiles en regiones hasta ahora marginales. En cambio, el Perú ha seguido conceptualizando las 'drogas' como una cuestión de delincuencia y seguridad. Este enfoque ha llevado a la erradicación forzosa de cultivos financiada por los Estados Unidos, en donde la carga de la "guerra contra las drogas" recae en los agricultores empobrecidos y genera violencia e inestabilidad. A petición de los agricultores, el Gobierno peruano está estudiando actualmente la posibilidad de aplicar parcialmente el modelo boliviano en el Perú. ¿Podría funcionar? Abordamos esta cuestión a través de un trabajo de campo etnográfico, datos de entrevistas y debates de grupos de discusión en ambos países, combinados con investigaciones secundarias extraídas de informes del gobierno, las ONG y los organismos internacionales. Consideramos que para que el control comunitario tenga una posibilidad razonable de éxito en el Perú es necesario fortalecer algunas esferas clave. Entre ellas figuran, la capacidad de las organizaciones de base para autogestionarse, el fomento de la confianza en el Estado mediante una mayor colaboración y la incorporación de los cocaleros a las instituciones de desarrollo y de control de cultivos. En términos más generales, este estudio muestra cómo el éxito del desarrollo participativo depende de dos elementos. El primero es la existencia de organizaciones de base fuertes y funcionales que se refuerzan mediante un claro sentido de identidad colectiva. El otro es la confianza en el Estado, y la medida en que el Estado se compromete a permitir que los sectores rurales, indígenas y pobres de la sociedad mejoren sus vidas. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, The state’s developmentalist illusion and the origins of illegal coca cultivation in Peru’s Alto Huallaga Valley (1960–80)(Cambridge University Press, 2021-05-01)The origin of illicit economies has been understood as a consequence of ‘low stateness’ (i.e. low reach of the state). Given the limited stateness in many regions, however, this article seeks to explain how only some sub-national territories have become vulnerable to illegal drug trafficking. To make this case, the representative example of the Alto Huallaga valley, in the Peruvian Amazon, is analysed. This article argues that ineffective development and settlement efforts by the Peruvian state in the Alto Huallaga, rather than the absence of the state, produced socio-ecological conditions in the region, in the late 1970s, that made it more vulnerable to the illegal economy. At the same time as international demand for illegal cocaine was expanding, two conditions resulting from frustrated state development plans came together: an enclave of poor peasants who were not self-sufficient and a natural environment impoverished by soil degradation and intensive deforestation, paradoxically not suitable for any crop except coca. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, From criminals to citizens: the applicability of Bolivia's community-based coca control policy to Peru(Elsevier, 2021-10-01)Between 2006 and 2019, Bolivia emerged as a world leader in formulating a participatory, non-violent model to gradually limit coca production in a safe and sustainable manner while simultaneously offering farmers realistic economic alternatives to coca. Our study finds that not only has this model reduced violence, but it has effectively expanded social and civil rights in hitherto marginal regions. In contrast, Peru has continued to conceptualize ‘drugs’ as a crime and security issue. This has led to U.S.-financed forced crop eradication, putting the burden onto impoverished farmers, generating violence and instability. At the request of farmers, the Peruvian government has made a tentative move towards implementing one aspect of Bolivia's community control in Peru. Could it work? We address this question by focusing on participatory development with a special emphasis on the role of local organizations and the relationship between growers and the state. Drawing on long-term ethnographic fieldwork, interviews, focus group discussions and secondary research, we find that for community control to have any chance of success in Peru, grassroots organizations must be strengthened and grower trust in the state created. The study also demonstrates that successful participatory development in drug crop regions is contingent on land titling and robust state investment, which strengthens farmer resolve to participate so as to avoid a return to the repression of the past. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, Addressing socio-environmental challenges and unintended consequences of Peruvian drug policy: an analysis in two former cocalero valleys(LSE Press, 2021-01-01)For decades, international governments and the Peruvian state have worked to reduce illicit coca cultivation in valleys that were once among the largest global producers of coca. The principal strategies used in these interventions are drug crop eradication and alternative development (AD), both of which have been operating for over forty years in Peru. These interventions have decreased illicit coca cultivation in targeted areas and increased the number of farmers engaged in alternative crops. However, socio-environmental factors affect farmer’s experiences of these interventions at a micro level, sometimes causing unintended negative consequences. Drawing on qualitative research in the Upper Huallaga and Monzón Valleys, this article details the mechanisms through which socio-environmental vulnerabilities shaped how coca eradication and AD policies are experienced by current and former cocalero farmers. We argue that long-term coca eradication and AD policies in both valleys reproduced social and environmental precarities. In particular, we found that: participation in AD programs was commonly more attainable for farmers who had relatively higher access to resources; successful alternative crop cultivation was often limited by socio-environmental conditions; and ongoing coca eradication continued to push marginalized coca growers into more precarious positions, often leading them to replant coca in more distant forests. For these reasons, illicit coca cultivation continued, albeit at a lower scale and under greater challenges for farmers, alongside attempts to combat it. We conclude the article by discussing these findings in the context of recent scholarship and ongoing supply-side drug policies that claim to support social equity and environmental well-being. - Some of the metrics are blocked by yourconsent settings
Item type:Publication, Illicit Crops in the Frontier Margins: Amazonian Indigenous Livelihoods and the Expansion of Coca in Peru(Taylor & Francis, 2023-06-23)This paper explores illegal coca crop expansion in indigenous Amazonian communities in Peru. The ethnographic study sheds light on the historical development of these areas as frontier spaces, where the growth of illicit crops intertwines with socio-ecological transformations and gives rise to conflicts over new forms of land control, opportunities for capital accumulation, and political power dynamics. The paper argues that this expansion is shaped by dual processes: from ‘below,’ involving small-scale migrant farmers from the Andes, and from ‘above,’ primarily driven by state-led agrarian interventions. Consequently, communities experience significant tensions, as they adapt to the forces of market expansion to secure their livelihoods, while simultaneously facing risks of violence and insecurity.