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When Gender Is More Likely to Predict Pay via Self-Enhancement Values and Working Hours: The Role of Country's Level of Gender Inequality
(Wiley, 2023-03-16)
Building upon situational strength and biosocial constructionist theories, we test the indirect effect of gender on pay via self‐enhancement values (e.g. power and achievement) and working hours. We also examine the moderating role of country‐level inequality on that mediated link. The results of multilevel regressions with 16,352 respondents nested in 28 European countries support the hypotheses that men are more likely to prioritise self‐enhancement values, to work more hours than women and consequently receive higher earnings. The indirect effect of gender on pay via self‐enhancement values and working hours was stronger for gender‐equal countries. The link between gender and working hours was moderated by country‐level inequality. In gender‐equal countries, the differences in working hours for men and women were larger than in gender‐unequal countries. We discuss the implications of our findings for creating policies that promote gender equality in salary.
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When crisis hits home: cultural and gendered realities of entrepreneurial parenting in difficult times
(Emerald Publishing Limited, 2025-01-01)
This study identifies and details the notable effects of having children in the household and gender on how entrepreneurs experience work–family conflict, as well as on their well-being, during times of crisis (e.g. COVID-19 pandemic). Design/methodology/approach Leveraging both boundary theory and embeddedness literature, the authors analyze data from more than 6,500 entrepreneurs across 24 European countries, drawn from Eurofound's Living, Working and COVID-19 survey. Findings Entrepreneurs with children in the household experience greater work–family conflict than entrepreneurs without children, leading to variances in their psychological well-being. Female entrepreneurs are particularly affected by this increased work–family conflict and diminished well-being. However, a society's culture, measured as its embeddedness, can mitigate differences in work–family conflict and well-being between entrepreneurs with and without children. In particular, female entrepreneurs benefit from the support they receive from their embedded membership in family networks. Originality/value This study provides unique insights into the link between parenthood and psychological well-being and the influences of conflicting demands between work and family in times of crisis. It accounts for how these links vary by both gender and the broader cultural environment, offering novel recommendations for how entrepreneurs can protect themselves, even in the midst of a crisis.
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The Diversity Paradox: The Unintended Consequences of Gender Diversity on Gender Pay Equity
(Wiley, 2025-09-01)
We examine how gender diversity and employees' internal pay position interact to explain gender differences in pay raises. Integrating equity theory and institutional theory, we argue that pay raises are guided by equity‐based reward allocation policies. Further, we expect a decoupling between these policies and their implementation if other gender diversity goals, such as a balanced ratio of female and male employees at the work‐unit level, are achieved. Specifically, gender diversity at the work‐unit level provides legitimacy that corporate diversity goals are being pursued. This makes the implementation of reward allocation policies aimed at increasing gender pay equity less salient in work units with high levels of gender diversity. We test our hypotheses using a multilevel moderated mediation model on a longitudinal sample of 9,246 observations from 4,003 employees in a large German company. Our results show an indirect effect of gender on pay increases over 3 years via compa ratio (i.e., the relative pay position for a given job grade). In support of equity theory, the results show that women receive higher pay increases than men over time to compensate for a lower compa ratio. Moreover, in work units with high gender diversity, the indirect effect of gender on pay raise is weaker, suggesting a decoupling between equity‐based reward allocation policies and their implementation. Our results offer valuable insights into the interaction of equity and institutional theory‐based explanations of reaching corporate diversity goals.
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