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    Assessment of combined in-plane and out-of-plane fragility functions for adobe masonry buildings in the Peruvian Andes
    (Frontiers Media S.A., 2020-05-01)
    In the city of Cusco and in other parts of Peruvian andes, adobe masonry is the primarily construction material. Adobe continues being used for the construction of housing due to its low cost, its thermal properties, the use of unskilled labor as well as the local traditions of the Peruvian highlands. The Peruvian National Statistics Office (INEI) estimates that 67% of rural housing in Cusco is made of adobe masonry. Besides, previous seismic events and laboratory tests demonstrated that adobe dwellings without reinforcement are prone to collapse during an earthquake. Therefore, seismic vulnerability assessment of this type of dwellings is necessary aiming at developing proper contingency and mitigation risk policies. Then, fragility curves constitute a key tool when conducting seismic loss assessment since they provide information regarding the probability of exceeding a certain damage Limit State (LS) as a function of a given engineering demand parameter. This work aims at developing fragility curves, combining in-plane and out-of-plane loading conditions, for typical adobe buildings located in the city of Cusco. Initially, a set of one and two-story adobe houses were studied to determine the geometrical characteristics of representative local building typologies. Subsequently, 1000 artificial buildings were generated by means of Monte Carlo simulation based on the information gathered. The structural capacity of each artificial building was represented by simplified bilinear and trilinear capacity curves for in-plane and out-of-plane mechanisms, respectively. In order to represent the characteristics associated with subduction processes a set of ground motion records was established. The damage state of each building was assessed for each seismic record, and this information was collected into a Probability Damage Matrix (DPM). Finally, fragility curves were fitted for each damage state of the cumulative DPM. Preliminary results show that one and two-story adobe dwellings have a probability of collapse of 30% and 60%, respectively, when considering a peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.30 g, which corresponds to the expected acceleration related to a return period of 475 years over a soil type 2 according to the Peruvian Standards.
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    Evaluation of the Seismic Force Reduction Factor (R) for Adobe Walls Design
    (Taylor & Francis, 2026-01-01)
    Earth-based construction (particularly adobe and rammed earth) continues to provide housing for nearly a quarter of the world's population, reflecting its economic accessibility and deep cultural roots. Yet, despite its widespread use, seismic design for earthen structures remains anchored in allowable-stress methods that mirror the material's brittle nature, rather than adopting performance-based frameworks centred on ductility, energy dissipation, and overstrength. Adobe's low tensile strength and limited deformation capacity constrain seismic energy dissipation, leading to brittle in-plane behaviour. Advancing force-reduction-based design thus requires experimental quantification of ductility and overstrength. This study analyses full-scale in-plane cyclic tests on adobe walls with intermediate slenderness. Capacity curves were used to estimate seismic reduction factors through three approaches: an energy-based method, a bilinear idealisation incorporating ductility and overstrength, and a demand-spectrum procedure aligned with SEAOC. Results indicate limited yet measurable ductility and moderate overstrength. Under controlled performance objective, a global reduction factor of R ≈ 1.5 is proposed for unreinforced adobe walls, assuming out-of-plane instability is prevented, thereby defining applicability limits. These findings provide an experimental basis for integrating earthen construction into contemporary seismic design frameworks, thereby supporting safer, more resilient applications in regions where adobe remains a primary building material for housing.
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